Apologia Advanced Biology Contents

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Apologia Advance Biology

The Human Body: Fearfully and Wonderfully Made!

Table of Contents
Module 1: An Organizational Overview and Some Review Introduction 1
Some Terminology 1
Organization of the Human Body 2
Steady as She Goes! 5
A Review of Cell Structure and Organelle Function 10
A Review of Protein Synthesis 14
A Review of Cellular Mitosis 17
The Plasma Membrane 19
Functions of the Plasma Membrane 20
Membrane Transport 24

Module 2: Histology: The Study of Tissues Introduction 33
Simple Epithelial Tissue 33
Stratified Epithelial Tissue 37
Experiment 2.1 40
Glandular Epithelium 42
Experiment 2.2 45
Connective Tissue 45
Connective Tissue Proper 46
Cartilage 50
Bone and Blood 52
Membranes 53
Tissue Repair 54

Module 3: Skin and Bones - The Integumentary and Skeletal Systems Introduction 61
The Basic Structure of Skin 61
Experiment 3.1 69
Hair and Nails 69
Experiment 3.2 72
Skin Glands 73
The Skeletal System 75
Gross Anatomy of Bones 77
An Overview of the Skeletal System 79
Details of the Appendicular Skeleton: The Limbs 81
Details of the Appendicular Skeleton: The Hands and Feet 82 Details of the Axial Skeleton: The Skull 83
Details of the Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column 87
Details of the Axial Skeleton: The Thoracic Cage 89

Module 4: Skeletal System Histology and Movement Introduction 97
Bone Histology 97
Experiment 4.1 99
Cancellous and Compact Bone Histology 100
Experiment 4.2 101
Bone Growth and Bone Remodeling 103
Bone Homeostasis 107
The Three Major Types of Joints in the Skeleton 110
Motion and Terms of Movement 115

Module 5: Muscle Histology and Physiology Introduction 125
Skeletal Muscle Structure 126
Experiment 5.1 128
How a Muscle fiber Contracts 129
The Neuromuscular Junction in a Skeletal Muscle 136
How a Muscle Fiber Relaxes 140
Motor Units 141
Multiple Motor Unit Summation 143
Muscle Tone 145
Energy in Skeletal Muscle fibers 145
Summing Up 148

Module 6: The Skeletal Muscle System A Few General Terms and Principles 155
An Overview of the Skeletal Muscle System 158
Muscle Names 159
The Major Muscles of the Head and Face 161
Major Muscles of the Anterior Chest and Abdominal Wall 163
The Major Muscles of the Shoulder, Back, and Arm 164
Major Muscles of the Forearm 166
Muscles of the Hand 169
Major Muscles of the Thigh 169
Major Muscles of the Leg 172
The Muscles of the Foot 175
Summing Up 175

Module 7: The Nervous System: Neurons and Neuroglia Introduction 181
The Nervous System at a Cellular Level 183
Neuroglia 186
Experiment 7.1 188
Nerve Structure 189
Action Potentials I: The Resting Potential 191
Action Potentials II: Stimulus and Response 194
Action Potentials III: Stimulus and Conduction 198
Synaptic Transmission 204
Neuron Arrangements 209
Summing it Up 210

Module 8: The Central Nervous System Introduction 217
The Brain 217
Brain Anatomy 219
The Cerebrum in More Detail 224
Other Important Structures in the Brain 229
Protection of the Brain 232
The Spinal Cord 235
The Reflex Arc 237
Ascending and Descending Pathways in the Spinal Cord 240
Summing up the CNS 244

Module 9: The Peripheral Nervous System Introduction 249
Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System 250
Control of the Autonomic Nervous System 255
The Afferent Division of the Peripheral Nervous System 257
The General Senses 261
Experiment 9.1 263
The Sense of Smell 264
The Sense of Taste 267
The Sense of Balance 270
The Sense of Hearing 273
The Sense of Vision: Eye Anatomy 276
Experiment 9.2 280
The Sense of Vision: Physiology of the Eye 282
Summing Up 286

Module 10: The Endocrine System Introduction 293
The Endocrine System as a Whole 294
Endocrine Glands and Hormones 296
Hormone Chemistry 302
How Hormone Secretion is Controlled 303
Patterns of Hormone Secretion 308
Hormone Receptors in the Body 309
Prostaglandins 310
Summing Up 311

Module 11: The Circulatory System Introduction 317
The Makeup of Blood 317
Experiment 11.1 325
Blood as a Connective Tissue 326
Blood Types 332
Experiment 11.2 336
An Overview of Blood Circulation 337
Heart Anatomy 338
Experiment 11.3 341
The Flow of Blood Through the Heart 343
Cardiac Muscle and the Cardiac Cycle 344
Blood Vessels and the Entire Circulatory System 346
Summing Up 349

Module 12: The Lymphatic System Introduction 355
Lymph and Lymph Vessels 356
Functions of the Lymphatic System 357
Lymph Tissue, Lymph Nodules, and Lymph Nodes 360
Experiment 12.1 360
Lymph Nodes 361
The Spleen and the Thymus Gland 363
Immunity 365
The First Line of Innate (Nonspecific) Immunity 367
The Second Line of Innate Defense 368
Acquired Immunity Part 1: Humoral Immunity 371
Acquired Immunity Part 2: Cell-Mediated Immunity 374
Types of Acquired Immunity and Autoimmunity 375
Summing Up 376

Module 13: The Digestive System Introduction 381
Overview of the Digestive System 382
The Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus 384
The Stomach 389
The Small Intestine 395
The Large Intestine 399
Accessory Organs: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gall Bladder 402
Experiment 13.2 406
Nutrition 406
Summing Up 409

Module 14: The Respiratory System Introduction 415
Anatomy and Functions of the Respiratory System 415
Voice 418
The Muscles and Mechanics of Ventilation 421
Factors That Aid Ventilation 423
External Respiration 427
Experiment 14.1 431
Gas Exchange During External and Internal Respiration 432
Respiratory Control 435
Cellular Respiration 437

Module 15: The Urinary System Introduction 453
Anatomy of the Urinary System 453
Urine Formation: The Overall Scheme 457
Urine Formation, Step 1: Glomerular Filtration 459
Urine Formation, Step 2: Reabsorption 462
Urine Formation, Step 3: Secretion 464
Urine Formation, Step 4: Reabsorption of Water 465
Storage and Release of Urine 469
Blood Pressure Control in the Kidneys 469
Acid/Base Balance in the Body 470
Experiment 15.1 471
Summing Up 475

Module 16: The Reproductive System Introduction 483
Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System 483
Spermatogenesis 488
Experiment 16.1 492
Hormonal Control of Male Reproduction 493
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System 495
Development of the Ovum 497
The Menstrual Cycle 500
Review Experiment 508
Summing It All Up 509