Apologia Advanced Chemistry Contents

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Advanced Chemistry in Creation

Table of Contents
Module 1: Units, Chemical Equations, and Stoichiometry Revisited
Introduction 1
Units Revisited 1
A New Look at Chemical Equations 4
A New Look At Hess's Law 7
Stoichiometry and Limiting Reagents 13
Stoichiometry, Percent Yield, and Multiple Reactions 19

Module 2: The Atom Revisited
Introduction 35
The Atom - What a Bohr! 35
Experiment 21: The Colors of Chemistry 36
A Detailed Look at the Bohr Model 37
The Bohr Model and Atomic Spectra 42
The Size of an Atom 48
Moving From the Bohr Model to the Quantum Mechanical Model 49

Module 3: The Electronic Structure of Molecules
Introduction 67
How Atoms Share Electrons 67
Hybrid Orbitals 68
Molecular Orbitals - Part 1 73
Molecular Orbitals Part 2: The Rule-Breakers 80
Explanation of Experiment 21 Plus Another Experiment 87
Experiment 31: The Effect of a Solvent on the Color of a Substance 88

Module 4: Intermolecular Forces
Introduction 97
Experiment 41: The Kinetic Theory of Matter 97
Applying the Kinetic Theory of Matter to Phase Changes 98
The Different Types of Van Der Waals Forces 102
Cohesive Forces, Adhesive Forces, and Surface Tension 108
Phase Diagrams 110
Crystals and Unit Cells 113
Experiment 42: Identifying Unit Cells 115
Metallic Crystals 116
Ionic Crystals 120

Module 5: Solutions and Colloids
Introduction 127
A Little Bit of Review 127
Relating Units of Concentration 130
Solubility, van der Waals Forces, and Entropy 132
Temperature and Solubility 137
Experiment 51: Solubility Curves 137
The Effect of a Solute on a Solvent's Phase Diagram 143
Separating Solute From Solvent in a Solution 145
Experiment 52: A Simple Distillation 145
Experiment 53: Paper Chromatography 148
Colloids 150
Experiment 54: Forming Colloidal Particles With Soap 152

Module 6: Solutions and Equilibrium
Introduction 161
A Little Bit of Review 161
The Equilibrium Constant and Gibb's Free Energy 163
Solubility Equilibria 166
The Common Ion Effect 171
Experiment 61: The Common Ion Effect 171
Precipitation From Solution 178
Experiment 62: Precipitation 178

Module 7: Acid/Base Equilibria
Introduction 195
A Little Bit of Review 195
The Real Meaning Behind the pH Scale 198
Calculating the pH of a Solution of an Acid or Base 201
Experiment 71: Calculating Concentration From pH 206
Amphiprotic Substances and Their Behavior 208
Diprotic and Triprotic Acids 211
An Alternative Definition of Acids and Bases 216

Module 8: More on Equilibrium
Introduction 229
Buffer Solutions 229
Experiment 81: The Bicarbonate Buffer 229
The pH of a Buffer 233
The Common Ion Effect and pH 241
The Technique of Successive Approximations 244
Other Equilibrium Situations 245

Module 9: Electrochemistry - Part 1
Introduction 267
A Little Review 267
Analyzing Redox Reactions 271
Experiment 91: A Redox Reaction Between Copper and Zinc 271
Galvanic Cells 274
Experiment 92: Making Your Own Galvanic Cell 280
The Nernst Equation 283
Electrolytic Cells 285
Experiment 93: The Electrolysis of Copper Sulfate 286
Faraday's Law of Electrolysis 290

Module 10: Electrochemistry - Part 2
Introduction 305
Balancing Redox Reactions - The Half-Reaction Method 305
Balancing Redox Reactions - The Change in Oxidation Number Method 313
The Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 315
Experiment 101: Predicting the Results of Redox Reactions 321
Relating Redox Potential to D G and the Equilibrium Constant 322
Corrosion 325

Module 11: Chemical Kinetics
Introduction 337
A Little Review 337
Experiment 111: The Rate of an Iodine Clock Reaction 339
Another Way to Look at The Kinetics of a Chemical Reaction 344
First-Order Chemical Reactions 346
Second-Order Reactions 349
The Collision Theory of Chemical Kinetics 350
Reaction Mechanisms and Reaction Rates 354

Module 12: An Introduction To Organic Chemistry
Introduction 369
Saturated Hydrocarbons 369
Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons 375
Alkenes and Alkynes 380
Aromatic Compounds 382
Petroleum 385
Polymers 387
Experiment 121: Investigating the Properties of Polyethylene 388
Experiment 122: Making Slime 388
Experiment 123: Crosslinking a Polymer 390

Module 13: Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry
Introduction 397
Alcohols 398
Experiment 131: Yeast and the Fermentation Process 399
Ethers 402
Aldehydes and Ketones 404
Carboxylic Acids 406
Esters 408
Amino Acids and Proteins 410
Carbohydrates 415
Experiment 132: The Hydrolysis of Sucrose 418
Summing Up Organic and Biochemistry 420

Module 14: Nuclear Chemistry
Introduction 425
Binding Energy 425
The Strong Nuclear Force 428
The Stability of a Nucleus 429
Radioactivity 431
Artificial Radioactivity 436
The Rate of Radioactive Decay 437
The Dangers of Radioactivity 438
Radioactive Dating 441
Other uses of Radioactivity and Ionizing Radiation 443
Nuclear Reactions 445
Using Nuclear Reactions to Make Energy 449

Module 15: Review - Part 1
Introduction 457
Review Questions and problems 457
Module 16: Review - Part 2
Review Questions and problems 467
Summing It All Up 475
Glossary 477
Appendix 481
Index 491