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Apologia Biology Contents
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Exploring Creation With Biology
Table of Contents
Module 1 : Biology, The Study Of Life
Introduction 1
What is Life? 1
DNA and Life 1
Energy Conversion and Life 2
Sensing and Responding to Change 6
All Life Forms Reproduce 7
Life's Secret Ingredient 8
The Scientific Method 9
Limitations of the Scientific Method 12
Spontaneous Generation: The Faithful Still Cling to It! 16
Biological Classification 17
Characteristics Used to Separate Organisms into Kingdoms 19
The Definition of Species 21
Biological Keys 22
Experiment 1.1: Using a Biological Key 26
Naming Organisms Based on Classification 28
The Microscope 29
Experiment 1.2: Introduction to the Microscope 30
Module 2 : Kingdom Monera
Introduction 37
Bacteria 37
Metabolism in Bacteria 41
Asexual Reproduction in Bacteria 44
Sexual Reproduction in Bacteria 47
Other Forms of Bacterial "Reproduction" 49
Bacterial Colonies 50
Experiment 2.1: Pond Life A 52
Classification in Kingdom Monera 53
Specific Bacteria 56
Preventing Bacterial Infections 58
Experiment 2.2: Pond Life B 60
Module 3: Kingdom Protista
Introduction 67
Experiment 3.1: Pond Life C 67
Classification in Kingdom Protista 68
Subkingdom Protozoa 71
Phylum Sarcodina 71
Phylum Mastigophora 74
Phylum Ciliophora 78
Phylum Sporozoa 80
Experiment 3.2: Subkingdom Protozoa 83
Subkingdom Algae 85
Phylum Chlorophyta 86
Phylum Chrysophyta 88
Phylum Pyrophyta 89
Phylum Phaeophyta 90
Phylum Rhodophyta 92
Experiment 3.3: Subkingdom Algae 93
Summing Up Kingdom Protista 93
Module 4: Kingdom Fungi
Introduction 99
General Characteristics of Fungi 99
Reproduction in Fungi 103
Classification in Kingdom Fungi 104
Phylum Amastigomycota 105
Experiment 4.1: Class Basidiomycetes 110
Experiment 4.2: Yeast and the Fermentation Process 113
Phylum Mastigomycota 117
Experiment 4.3: Molds and Mildews 117
The Imperfect Fungi 118
Optional Experiment 4.4: Imperfect Fungi 120
Phylum Myxomycota 121
Symbiosis in Kingdom Fungi 123
Summing Up Kingdom Fungi 124
Module 5: The Chemistry of Life
Introduction 129
Atoms: The Basic Building Blocks of Matter 129
Elements 132
Molecules 134
Changes in Matter 136
Physical Change 137
Experiment 5.1: Osmosis and Diffusion 138
Chemical Change 142
Photosynthesis 144
Organic Chemistry 146
Experiment 5.2: The Fragility of an Enzyme 157
DNA 159
Module 6: The Cell
Introduction 167
Cellular Functions 167
Cell Structure 170
Experiment 6.1: Cell Structure I 179
How Substances Travel In and Out of Cells 181
Experiment 6.2: Cell Structure II 186
How Cells Produce Energy 187
Protein Synthesis 192
Module 7: Cellular Reproduction
Introduction 207
Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA 208
Experiment 7.1: DNA Extraction 210
Mitosis: The Common Form of Asexual Reproduction 212
Experiment 7.2: Mitosis 216
Diploid Chromosomes 217
Meiosis: The Cellular Basis of Sexual Reproduction 220
Viruses 225
Module 8: Genetics
Introduction 235
Gregor Mendel 235
Mendel's Experiments 236
Updating the Terminology 242
Punnett Squares 245
Pedigrees 248
More Complex Genetic Crosses 251
Experiment 8.1: A Dihybrid Cross 256
Sex and Sex-Linked Genetic Traits 257
Experiment 8.2: Sex-Linked Genetic Traits 259
Genetic Disorders and Diseases 260
Experiment 8.3: The Environmental Factor 263
Module 9 : Evolution - Part Scientific Theory, Part Unconfirmed Hypothesis
Introduction 273
Charles Darwin 274
Darwin's Theory .. 276
Microevolution and Macroevolution 279
Inconclusive Evidence: The Geological Column 282
The Details of the Fossil Record: Evidence Against Macroevolution 286
Structural Homology: Formerly Evidence for Macroevolution 292
Molecular Biology: The Nail in Macroevolution's Coffin 294
Macroevolution 299
Why Do So Many Scientists Believe in Macroevolution? 302
Module 10 : Ecosystems
Introduction 309
Energy and Ecosystems 310
Symbiosis 315
The Physical Environment 320
The Water Cycle 321
The Oxygen Cycle 324
The Carbon Cycle 326
Experiment 10.1: Carbon Dioxide and the Greenhouse Effect 328
Summing Up 333
Module 11 : The Invertebrates of Kingdom Animalia
Introduction .. 339
Symmetry 339
Phylum Porifera: The Sponges 341
Experiment 11.1: Observation of a Sponge From Genus Grantia 344
Phylum 345
Experiment 11.2: Observation of a Hydra 349
Phylum Annelida 352
Optional Dissection Experiment #1: The Earthworm 358
Phylum Platyhelminthes 360
Experiment 11.3: Observation of a Planarian 362
Phylum Nematoda 363
Phylum 364
Summing Up The Invertebrates 366
Module 12 : Phylum Arthropoda
Introduction 373
General Characteristics of Arthropods 373
Class Crustacea 376
The Crayfish 376
Optional Dissection Experiment #2: The Crayfish 384
Class Arachnida 386
Classes Chilopoda and Diplopoda 391
Class Insecta 392
A Few Orders in Class Insecta 396
Experiment 12.1: Insect Classification 400
Module 13: Phylum Chordata
Introduction 407
Subphylum Urochordata 408
Subphylum Cephalochordat.a 409
Subphylum 410
Class Agnatha 417
Class Chondrichthyes 420
Class Osteichthyes 424
Optional Dissection Experiment #3: The Perch 431
Class Amphibia 433
Optional Dissection Experiment #4: The Frog 437
Summing Up 437
Experiment 13.1: Field Study II 438
Module 14: Kingdom Plantae: Anatomy and Classification
Introduction 445
Basic Plant Anatomy 445
The Macroscopic Structure of a Leaf 447
Experiment 14.1: Leaf Identification 450
The Microscopic Structure of a Leaf 452
Leaf Color 454
Experiment 14.2: Anthocyanin and Leaf Color 455
Roots 458
Stems 461
Experiment 14.3: Microscopic Investigations of Leaves and Stems 465
Classification of Plants 466
Phylum Bryophyta: The Non-Vascular Plants 467
Vascular Plants 468
Module 15 : Kingdom Plantae: Physiology and Reproduction
Introduction 477
Plant Physiology 477
How a Plant Depends on Water 477
Water Absorption in Plants 479
Water Transport in Plants 480
Plant Growth 483
Insectivorous Plants 486
Reproduction in Plants 487
Vegetative Reproduction 487
Sexual Reproduction in Plants 489
Experiment 15.1: Flower Anatomy 492
The Reproductive Process in Plants . 493
Seeds, Fruits, and Early Plant Development 499
Experiment 15.2: Fruits 501
Module 16 : Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals
Introduction 509
Class Reptilia 509
Classification of Reptiles .. 512
Order Rhynchocephalia 513
Order Squamata 514
Order Testudines 517
Order Crocodylia 518
Dinosaurs 519
Class Aves 521
Experiment 16.1: Bird Embryology 523
A Bird's Ability to Fly 524
Classification in Class Aves 529
Experiment 16.2: Bird Identification 532
Class Mammalia 533
Classification in class Mammalia 536
Summing It All 542
Glossary 547
Appendix 563
Index 569
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